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Environmental Science: Toward A Sustainable Future, 10/E
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ÆǸŰ¡°Ý  : 42,000¿ø
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ÃâÆǻ砠: Benjamin Cummings
ÀúÀÚ  : Richard T. Wright
¹ßÇàÀÏ  : 2008
ÆäÀÌÁö ¼ö  : 736¸é
ISBN  : 9780132302654
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Description

For introductory courses in Environmental Science, Environmental Studies, and Environmental Biology.

 

As the field of environmental science continues to evolve, this highly readable guide presents a full spectrum of views and information for students to evaluate issues and make informed decisions. An extensive resource package integrates text and digital media in an easy-to-use format designed to assist instructors in classroom preparation.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction: Toward a

Sustainable Future 2

1.1 The Global Environmental Picture 5

Population Growth and Economic Development 5

The Decline of Ecosystems 6

Global Atmospheric Changes 7

Loss of Biodiversity 8

1.2 Three Strategic Themes: Sustainability,

Stewardship, and Science 8

Sustainability 9

Stewardship 11

Science 13

1.3 Three Integrative Themes: Ecosystem

Capital, Policy/Politics, and Globalization 16

Ecosystem Capital 16

Policy and Politics 17

Globalization 18

1.4 The Environment in the 21st Century 19

A New Commitment 21

Revisiting the Themes 21

Review Questions 22

Thinking Environmentally 23

¢¯ ethics What Is the Stewardship Ethic? 12

¢¯ global perspective Red Sky at Morning 20

Part One

Ecosystems: Basic Units of the

Natural World 24


2 Ecosystems: What They Are 26

2.1 Ecosystems: A Description 28

2.2 The Structure of Ecosystems 31

Trophic Categories 31

Trophic Relationships: Food Chains, Food Webs,

and Trophic Levels 35

Nonfeeding Relationships 37

Abiotic Factors 40

2.3 From Ecosystems to Global Biomes 41

The Role of Climate 41

Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors 45

Biotic Factors 45

Physical Barriers 46

Summary 46

2.4 The Human Presence 47

Three Revolutions 47

Revisiting the Themes 50

Review Questions 51

Thinking Environmentally 51

¢¯ earth watch Limiting Factors and the

Woodland Caribou in Alberta, Canada 47

¢¯ global perspective Can Ecosystems

Be Restored? 48


3 Ecosystems: How They Work 52

3.1 Matter, Energy, and Life 54

Matter in Living and Nonliving Systems 54

Energy Basics 58

Energy Changes in Organisms 60

3.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 64

Primary Production 64

Energy Flow and Efficiency 65

Running on Solar Energy 67

3.3 The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems 67

The Carbon Cycle 68

The Phosphorus Cycle 69

The Nitrogen Cycle 70

3.4 Implications for Human Societies 73

Ecosystem Sustainability 73

Value of Ecosystem Capital 74

The Future 77

Revisiting the Themes 77

Review Questions 78

Thinking Environmentally 79

¢¯ global perspective Light and Nutrients: The

Controlling Factors in Marine Ecosystems 66

¢¯ ethics Ecosystem Stakeholders 75

Contents

viii

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page viii


4 Ecosystems: How They Change 80

4.1 Dynamics of Natural Populations 82

Population Growth Curves 82

Biotic Potential versus Environmental Resistance 83

Density Dependence and Critical Number 85

4.2 Mechanisms of Population Equilibrium 85

Predator—Prey Dynamics 85

Competition 88

Introduced Species 91

4.3 Evolution as a Force for Change 95

Adaptation through Natural Selection 95

Drifting Continents 100

4.4 Ecosystem Responses to Disturbance 102

Ecological Succession 102

Disturbance and Resilience 105

Evolving Ecosystems? 107

4.5 Living Beyond Our Means 109

Managing Ecosystems 109

Pressures on Ecosystems 110

Revisiting the Themes 111

Review Questions 112

Thinking Environmentally 112

Making a Difference Part One:

Chapters 2, 3, 4 113

¢¯ guest essay The Village Weaverbird:

Marvel or Menace? 91

¢¯ earth watch Environmental Tipping Points 108

Part Two

The Human Population 114


5 The Human Population 116

5.1 Human Population Expansion and

Its Cause 118

Reasons for the Patterns of Growth 118

5.2 Different Worlds 121

Rich Nations, Poor Nations 121

Population Growth in Rich and Poor Nations 121

Different Populations, Different Problems 123

5.3 Consequences of Population Growth

and Affluence 124

The Developing Countries 125

Affluence 128

5.4 Dynamics of Population Growth 130

Population Profiles 130

Future Populations 132

Population Momentum 135

The Demographic Transition 136

Revisiting the Themes 139

Review Questions 140

Thinking Environmentally 141

¢¯ ethics Immigration: An American Tradition 128

¢¯ earth watch Are We Living Longer? 132


6 Population and Development 142

6.1 Reassessing the Demographic Transition 144

Large Families or Small? 145

6.2 Promoting Development 148

Good and Bad News 148

Millennium Development Goals 150

World Agencies at Work 152

The Debt Crisis 153

Development Aid 154

6.3 A New Direction: Social Modernization 156

Improving Education 156

Improving Health 157

AIDS 157

Family Planning 158

Employment and Income 160

Resource Management 161

Putting It All Together 162

6.4 The Cairo Conference 162

Revisiting the Themes 163

Review Questions 164

Thinking Environmentally 165

Making a Difference Part Two:

Chapters 5 and 6 165

¢¯ guest essay Poverty Traps and Natural

Resources Management 149

¢¯ ethics China¡¯s Population Policies 160

Contents ix

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page ix

Part Three

Renewable Resources 166


7 Water: Hydrologic Cycle and

Human Use 168

7.1 Water: A Vital Resource 170

7.2 Hydrologic Cycle: Natural Cycle,

Human Impacts 170

Evaporation, Condensation, and Purification 170

Precipitation 173

Groundwater 174

Pools and Fluxes in the Cycle 175

Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle 175

7.3 Water: A Resource to Manage,

a Threat to Control 177

Uses and Sources 177

Surface Waters 180

Groundwater 182

7.4 Water Stewardship: Public Policy

Challenges 185

Obtaining More Water 185

Using Less Water 187

Public-Policy Challenges 189

Revisiting the Themes 191

Review Questions 192

Thinking Environmentally 193

¢¯ global perspective Water: Key to Life and

Progress in Darewadi 185

¢¯ global perspective The Fourth World

Water Forum 190

8 Soil: Foundation for Land

Ecosystems 194

8.1 Soil and Plants 196

Soil Characteristics 196

Soil and Plant Growth 199

The Soil Community 201

8.2 Soil Degradation 203

Erosion 204

Drylands and Desertification 205

Causing and Correcting Erosion 207

Irrigation and Salinization 211

8.3 Conserving the Soil 212

Public Policy and Soils 212

Helping Individual Landholders 213

Revisiting the Themes 216

Review Questions 216

Thinking Environmentally 217

¢¯ ethics Erosion by Equation 210

¢¯ global perspective Three-Strata

Forage System for Mountainous Drylands 214

x Contents


9 The Production and Distribution

of Food 218

9.1 Crops and Animals: Major Patterns

of Food Production 220

The Development of Modern Industrialized

Agriculture 220

The Green Revolution 222

Subsistence Agriculture in the

Developing World 223

Animal Farming and Its Consequences 224

Prospects for Increasing Food

Production 226

9.2 From Green Revolution to Gene

Revolution 228

The Promise 228

The Problems 230

Policies 231

9.3 Food Distribution and Trade 232

Patterns in Food Trade 232

Food Security 233

9.4 Hunger, Malnutrition, and Famine 236

Nutrition vs. Hunger 236

Extent and Consequences of Hunger 237

Root Cause of Hunger 238

Famine 238

Hunger Hot Spots 240

Food Aid 240

Closing Thoughts on Hunger 241

Revisiting the Themes 242

Review Questions 243

Thinking Environmentally 243

¢¯ ethics Feeding the Hungry in the

United States 234

¢¯ global perspective World Food Summit 236

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page x

Contents xi


10 Wild Species and Biodiversity 244

10.1 The Value of Wild Species 246

Biological Wealth 246

Two Kinds of Value 246

Sources for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture,

and Animal Husbandry 247

Sources for Medicine 248

Recreational, Aesthetic, and Scientific Value 249

Value for Their Own Sake 249

10.2 Saving Wild Species 251

Game Animals in the United States 251

Protecting Endangered Species 253

10.3 Biodiversity and Its Decline 258

The Decline of Biodiversity 259

Reasons for the Decline 261

Consequences of Losing Biodiversity 265

10.4 Protecting Biodiversity 266

International Developments 266

Stewardship Concerns 267

Revisiting the Themes 269

Review Questions 270

Thinking Environmentally 271

¢¯ earth watch Return of the Gray Wolf 257

¢¯ global perspective Biodiversity:

Essential or Not? 266


11 Ecosystem Capital: Use and

Restoration 272

11.1 Global Perspective on Biological

Systems 274

Major Systems and Their Goods and Services 274

Ecosystems as Natural Resources 274

11.2 Conservation, Preservation, Restoration 276

Conservation Versus Preservation 276

Patterns of Human Use of Natural Ecosystems 277

Restoration 280

11.3 Biomes and Ecosystems under Pressure 283

Forest Biomes 283

Ocean Ecosystems 287

11.4 Public and Private Lands in the

United States 294

National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges 295

National Forests 296

Protecting Nonfederal Lands 298

Final Thoughts 299

Revisiting the Themes 299

Review Questions 300

Thinking Environmentally 301

Making a Difference Part Three:

Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 301

¢¯ earth watch Will Aquaculture Be Able to

Fill the Gap? 289

¢¯ global perspective The Mangrove Man 295

Part Four

Energy 302


12 Energy from Fossil Fuels 304

12.1 Energy Sources and Uses 306

Harnessing Energy Sources: An Overview 306

Electrical Power Production 308

Matching Sources to Uses 311

12.2 Exploiting Crude Oil 312

How Fossil Fuels Are Formed 313

Crude-Oil Reserves Versus Production 314

Declining U.S. Reserves and Increasing

Importation 314

Problems of Growing U.S. Dependency on

Foreign Oil 317

12.3 Other Fossil Fuels 321

Natural Gas 321

Coal 322

Oil Shales and Oil Sands 323

12.4 Energy Security and Policy 323

Security Threats 323

Energy Policies 324

Revisiting the Themes 327

Review Questions 328

Thinking Environmentally 329

¢¯ earth watch CHP: Industrial Common Sense 326


13 Energy from Nuclear Power 330

13.1 Nuclear Energy in Perspective 332

13.2 How Nuclear Power Works 334

From Mass to Energy 334

Comparing Nuclear Power with Coal Power 337

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xi

13.3 The Hazards and Costs of Nuclear

Power Facilities 339

Radioactive Emissions 339

Radioactive Wastes 341

Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 341

Nuclear Power Accidents 343

Safety and Nuclear Power 346

Economics of Nuclear Power 347

13.4 More Advanced Reactors 349

Breeder (Fast-neutron) Reactors 349

Fusion Reactors 349

13.5 The Future of Nuclear Power 351

Opposition 351

Rebirth of Nuclear Power 351

Revisiting the Themes 352

Review Questions 353

Thinking Environmentally 353

¢¯ ethics Showdown in the New West 344


14 Renewable Energy 354

14.1 Putting Solar Energy to Work 357

Principles of Solar Energy 357

Solar Heating of Water 358

Solar Space Heating 358

Solar Production of Electricity 361

The Future of Solar Energy 364

14.2 Indirect Solar Energy 365

Hydropower 365

Wind Power 367

Biomass Energy 368

14.3 Renewable Energy for Transportation 369

Biofuels 370

Hydrogen: Highway to the Future? 371

14.4 Additional Renewable-

Energy Options 374

Geothermal Energy 374

Tidal Power 374

Ocean Thermal-Energy Conversion 375

14.5 Policies for a Sustainable-

Energy Future 375

National Energy Policy 375

Revisiting the Themes 379

Review Questions 380

Thinking Environmentally 380

Making a Difference, Part Four:

Chapters 12, 13, and 14 381

¢¯ earth watch Economic Payoff of

Solar Energy 365

¢¯ ethics Transfer of Energy Technology to the

Developing World 366

¢¯ guest essay Caring for Planet Earth through

the Proper Use of Our Energy Resources 378

xii Contents

Part Five

Pollution and Prevention 382


15 Environmental Hazards and

Human Health 384

15.1 Links between Human Health

and the Environment 386

The Picture of Health 387

Public Health 387

Environmental Hazards 387

15.2 Pathways of Risk 394

The Risks of Being Poor 394

The Cultural Risk of Tobacco Use 396

Risk and Infectious Diseases 397

Toxic Risk Pathways 399

Disaster Risk 401

15.3 Risk Assessment 402

Environmental Risk Assessment

by the EPA 403

Public-Health Risk Assessment 404

Risk Management 405

Risk Perception 406

Revisiting the Themes 407

Review Questions 409

Thinking Environmentally 409

¢¯ global perspective An Unwelcome

Globalization 400


16 Pests and Pest Control 410

16.1 The Need for Pest Control 412

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xii

Contents xiii

16.2 Promises and Problems of the

Chemical Approach 414

Development of Chemical Pesticides and

Their Successes 414

Problems Stemming from Chemical

Pesticide Use 415

16.3 Alternative Pest Control Methods 421

Cultural Control 422

Control by Natural Enemies 423

Genetic Control 425

Natural Chemical Control 428

16.4 Socioeconomic Issues in Pest

Management 429

Pressures to Use Pesticides 429

Integrated Pest Management 430

Organically Grown Food 431

16.5 Pesticides and Policy 432

FIFRA 432

FFDCA 433

Pesticides in Developing Countries 433

Revisiting the Themes 434

Review Questions 435

Thinking Environmentally 435

¢¯ ethics DDT for Malaria Control:

Hero or Villain? 416

¢¯ global perspective Wasps 1,

Mealybugs O 426


17 Water Pollution and

Its Prevention 436

17.1 Water Pollution 438

Pollution Essentials 438

Water Pollution: Sources, Types, Criteria 440

17.2 Wastewater Management and

Treatment 447

Development of Wastewater Collection and

Treatment Systems 447

The Pollutants in Raw Wastewater 447

Removing the Pollutants from Wastewater 449

Treatment of Sludge 451

Alternative Treatment Systems 452

17.3 Eutrophication 454

Different Kinds of Aquatic Plants 454

The Impacts of Nutrient Enrichment 455

Combating Eutrophication 455

17.4 Public Policy 460

Revisiting the Themes 461

Review Questions 462

Thinking Environmentally 463

¢¯ earth watch Monitoring for Sewage

Contamination 443

¢¯ earth watch The Algae from Hell 458


18 Municipal Solid Waste:

Disposal and Recovery 464

18.1 The Solid-Waste Problem 466

Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste 466

Landfills 467

Combustion: Waste to Energy 470

Costs of Municipal Solid-Waste Disposal 472

18.2 Solutions to the Solid-Waste Problem 472

Source Reduction 472

The Recycling Solution 473

Municipal Recycling 474

Regional Recycling Options 478

18.3 Public Policy and Waste Management 478

The Regulatory Perspective 479

Integrated Waste Management 479

Revisiting the Themes 482

Review Questions 482

Thinking Environmentally 483

¢¯ earth watch The Nantucket Story 479

¢¯ ethics ¡°Affluenza¡±: Do You Have It? 481


19 Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution

and Prevention 484

19.1 Toxicology and Chemical Hazards 486

Dose Response and Threshold 486

The Nature of Chemical Hazards: HAZMATs 486

Sources of Chemicals Entering the Environment 487

The Threat from Toxic Chemicals 488

Involvement with Food Chains 491

19.2 A History of Mismanagement 491

Methods of Land Disposal 491

Scope of the Mismanagement Problem 494

19.3 Cleaning Up the Mess 496

Ensuring Safe Drinking Water 496

Groundwater Remediation 496

Superfund for Toxic Sites 496

19.4 Managing Current Hazardous Wastes 500

The Clean Air and Water Acts 501

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

(RCRA) 501

Reduction of Accidents and Accidental

Exposures 502

19.5 Broader Issues 503

Environmental Justice and Hazardous Wastes 503

Pollution Prevention for a Sustainable Society 505

Revisiting the Themes 506

Review Questions 507

Thinking Environmentally 507

¢¯ earth watch Woburn¡¯s ¡°Civil Action¡± 499

¢¯ earth watch Daniel S. Granz, EPA

Environmental Engineer 500

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiii


20 The Atmosphere: Climate,

Climate Change, and Ozone

Depletion 508

20.1 Atmosphere and Weather 510

Atmospheric Structure 510

Weather 510

20.2 Climate 512

Climates in the Past 513

Ocean and Atmosphere 513

20.3 Global Climate Change 515

The Earth as a Greenhouse 515

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:

Fourth Assessment 517

Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 528

What About the Antarctic? 529

20.4 Response to Climate Change 530

Response 1: Mitigation 530

Response 2: Adaptation 533

20.5 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 534

Radiation and Importance of the Shield 534

Formation and Breakdown of the Shield 535

Coming to Grips with Ozone Depletion 538

Revisiting the Themes 540

Review Questions 541

Thinking Environmentally 541

¢¯ ethics Stewardship of the Atmosphere 518

¢¯ global perspective Coping with UV

Radiation 536


21 Atmospheric Pollution 542

21.1 Air Pollution Essentials 544

Pollutants and Atmospheric Cleansing 544

The Appearance of Smog 545

21.2 Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources 546

Primary Pollutants 547

Secondary Pollutants 549

Acid Deposition 551

21.3 Impacts of Air Pollutants 555

Effects on Human Health 556

Effects on the Environment 558

21.4 Bringing Air Pollution Under Control 561

Control Strategies 562

Limiting Pollutants from Motor Vehicles 562

Coping with Acid Deposition 565

21.5 Regulatory Issues 567

Revisiting the Themes 569

Review Questions 570

Thinking Environmentally 571

Making a Difference Part Five:

Chapters 15 through 21 571

¢¯ global perspective Mexico City: Life in a

Gas Chamber 548

¢¯ earth watch Portland Takes a Right Turn 568

xiv Contents

Part Six

Toward a Sustainable Future 572


22 Economics, Public Policy,

and the Environment 574

22.1 Economics and Public Policy 576

The Need for Environmental

Public Policy 576

Relationships between Economic

Development and the Environment 577

Economic Systems 577

22.2 Resources and the Wealth of Nations 579

The Wealth of Nations 580

Shortcomings of the GNP 584

Resource Distribution 585

22.3 Pollution and Public Policy 586

Public Policy Development:

The Policy Life Cycle 586

Economic Effects of Environmental

Public Policy 588

Policy Options: Market or Regulatory? 591

22.4 Benefit—Cost Analysis 592

External and Internal Costs 592

The Costs of Environmental Regulations 592

The Benefits of Environmental Regulation 594

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 595

22.5 Politics, the Public, and Public Policy 596

Politics and the Environment 596

Citizen Involvement 598

Revisiting the Themes 598

Review Questions 599

Thinking Environmentally 599

WRIGMF_0132302659_SE.QXD 1/12/07 12:59 PM Page xiv

Contents xv

¢¯ global perspective The World Trade

Organization 581

¢¯ guest essay A Transformational

Environmental Policy 589

¢¯ earth watch Green Fees and Taxes 592


23 Sustainable Communities

and Lifestyles 600

23.1 Urban Sprawl 602

The Origins of Urban Sprawl 603

Measuring Sprawl 606

Impacts of Urban Sprawl 607

Reining in Urban Sprawl: Smart Growth 609

23.2 Urban Blight 610

Economic and Ethnic Segregation 610

The Vicious Cycle of Urban Blight 610

Economic Exclusion of the Inner City 612

Urban Blight in Developing Countries 612

What Makes Cities Livable? 614

23.3 Moving toward Sustainable

Communities 616

Sustainable Cities 616

Sustainable Communities 617

23.4 Toward the Common Good 619

Our Dilemma 619

Lifestyle Changes 620

Revisiting the Themes 622

Review Questions 623

Thinking Environmentally 623

Making a Difference Part Six:

Chapters 22 and 23 623

¢¯ ethics The Tangier Island Covenant 620

Appendix A Environmental

Organizations 625

Appendix B Units of Measure 629

Appendix C Some Basic Chemical

Concepts 631

Credits 639

Glossary 643

Index 667

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